Studying Early Stage Science: Research Program Introduction

Do successful sciences function different in their earliest stages than they do after reaching maturity? We propose that they do, and hypothesize that there is a pattern characteristic of "early stage science." This hypothesis can be testing by performing case studies in the history of successful sciences.

Can AI Systems Evaluate Research Papers?

Part of Leverage's AI initiative, this is the first in a series of experiments to determine whether current AI systems can evaluate the quality of scientific research.

Bottlenecks 2024: Reading Materials

The reading materials sent to participants of Bottlenecks 2024, held in Los Angeles on the topic of Revolutionary Science. This PDF collects together 4 reports; (1) Introduction to Quantum Biology, (2) A Concise Overview of Wolfram's Research, (3) Summary of Leverage Introspection Research, and (4) A Summary of Samo Burja Thought.

Summary of Leverage Introspection Research

An overview of Leverage's introspection findings from 2012-2019. Presents a physics, chemistry, biology, and ecology of the mind while summarizing the main findings. The best available piece on the topic, as of late 2024.

Introduction to Quantum Biology

For a variety of biological phenomena, the only known explanation involves the laws of quantum physics. Learn about whether and how biology runs on quantum and what that means for the future of health, longevity, biomanufacturing, and more.

A Concise Overview of Wolfram’s Research

Stephen Wolfram has produced a mountain of valuable research, creating a bottleneck between said mountain and the rest of the scientific community. The first step in breaking that bottleneck is producing an accessible summary of Wolfram's work, making it easier for people to engage.

A Summary of Samo Burja Thought

Drawn from a wide-ranging study of recorded history, Samo Burja Thought represents part of the sociological framework created by Samo Burja, founder of Bismarck Analysis. It covers some of the central features of importance in human society: functional institutions, great founders, and coordination around power.

What an Actual Science of the Mind Would Look Like

To imagine a science of the mind, it is helpful to consider different views of science, the history of psychology, and the paths taken by previous successful sciences. Every new science gives surprising and unprecedented power; an actual science of the mind will do so as well.

What the History of Electricity Can Teach Us About Science

As the scientific enterprise struggles, some people look to metascience as the way forward. Science about science needs data, and that data is contained in the history of science. Lessons from successful science, such as the study of electricity, can help us understand science better and do better science today.

Progress Report: Bottleneck Events

After three years of Bottlenecks workshops, we took stock and thought about what we had learned. This Progress Report includes lessons for event organizers, especially those who want to craft events to help people think. One key takeaway: great locations can be really valuable.

Research Highlights: Hauksbee's Electric Light

A summary of the major takeaways from Leverage's case study on Francis Hauksbee's isolation of electric light in 1706.

Program Description: Bottlenecks in Science and Technology

Hauksbee and the Isolation of Electric Light

This study traces the study of electric light through the eighteenth century, where advances in glass manufacturing allowed for the creation of more sophisticated air pumps. We show how Francis Hauksbee, himself an instrument-maker supported by the Royal Society, investigated frictionally generated light using an improved air pump of his own design and thereby experimentally isolated electric light.

The Muscle-Readers, a Historical Sketch

Researchers in the late 19th and early 20th century discovered evidence that people can sometimes "read" information about others' thoughts and inclinations from muscle tension, unconscious vocalizations, and other subtle clues. A historical sketch, published in the Seeds of Science.

Research Highlights: The Development and Spread of Franklinian Theory

A summary of the major takeaways from Leverage's case study on Benjamin's Franklin's theory of electricity, put forth in an essay in 1751.

The Development and Spread of Franklinian Theory

Franklin’s fluid theory of electricity is widely seen as a pivotal development making him perhaps the most respected electrician in Europe. This rise is often attributed to the novelty and explanatory scope of his ideas. This case study argues instead for the centrality of three features: the relative simplicity and immediate applications of the theory, and Franklin's background and work with lightning for Enlightenment audiences.

Research Report: Intellectual Processes

One way to enhance discourse is to introduce discussion of the mental processes participants use to reach given conclusions. The first success in a string of attempts to improve Leverage researchers' ability to reach consensus on important matters. Research from September 2013 and following, publication in October 2021.

Research Report: Intelligence Amplification Map

A brief review of intellectual amplification literature and methods, conducted in May-Aug 2011.

Research Highlights: Gilbert's Electricks

A summary of major conclusions from Leverage's case study on William Gilbert's isolation of static electric attraction in the year 1600.

Research highlights: Ørsted and the Discovery of Electromagnetism

A summary of major conclusions from Leverage's case study on Ørsted's discovery of electromagnetism in 1820.

Ørsted and Electromagnetism

An investigation of the discovery of electromagnetism in 1820. We demonstrate that electromagnetism was straightforwardly discoverable by 1802 and investigate why the discovery was overlooked. We also discuss the central role of philosophy in Ørsted’s discovery, especially the metaphysical ideas of Kant and Schelling.

Research Report: Intellectual Practice Examination

A conceivable way to help a group reach consensus is to explicitly note the intellectual practices each participant employs and then use that knowledge to chart a course towards consensus. The second major experiment in Leverage's consensus research, with a negative result. Research from March-June 2013, published in July 2021.

Research Highlights: Discovery of the Leyden Jar

A summary of major conclusions from Leverage's case study on the discovery of the first capacitor, the Leyden jar, in 1745.

The Leyden Jar

The Leyden jar is widely recognized as among the most important discoveries in the history of electricity. While accounts often present the discovery as a mix of luck and crisis, our case study suggests a more complex picture. Included with the research are three unpublished letters by Kleist detailing his early studies, which are shared for others to study.

Research Report: Argument Mapping

Arguments can be difficult to keep track of. One hope for better argumentation is to map out lines of argument explicitly; this activity is known as "argument mapping." The first major experiment in Leverage's consensus research, with a negative result. Read to learn why; main research in October 2011 through March 2012; report published December 2020.

Research Highlights: Volta’s Invention of the Electrophorus

A summary of the major findings from Leverage's case study on Volta's invention of the electrophorus in 1775.

Volta's Electrophorus

An investigation of the distribution and impact of Volta's electrophorus. Our case study analyses why Volta’s electrophorus advanced consensus in the field despite similar phenomena having previously been demonstrated by two prominent scientists of the time. Key insights from this research are summarised in a supplementary research highlights document.

William Gilbert and the Discovery of Electricks

An analysis of William Gilbert’s discovery of static electric attraction and identification of the category of electricks. Our case study aims to understand how knowledge of static electric attraction developed prior to Gilbert and the causes and factors that enabled him to make his discovery.

Chart Logic & Core Mechanics

Information obtained from introspective verbal reports can be organized into a "chart." Charts have an internal logic which make it easier to induce and track belief changes. Chart Logic and Core Mechanics was produced at the peak of Leverage's introspection research program as a guide to charts and some belief update dynamics.

Introspection Safety for Researchers

Researchers who investigate the mind using introspective methods like belief reporting should be apprised of the risks. This document describes conditions under which introspection is not recommended, possible deleterious effects, and includes a brief review of the introspection risk literature.

On Intention Research

"Intention research" is a domain of research that focuses on subtle non-verbal communication. Starting in 2017, Leverage's researchers found evidence of substantial non-verbal communication, especially around mental content that is difficult to pay attention to.

How to Belief Report

A description of "belief reporting," an introspective method that involves holding the intention to tell the truth. Many people can belief report easily; many others, though not everyone, can learn with relative ease. Leverage's researchers found that belief reporting yielded reliable verbal reports of beliefs.

Bottlenecks in Longevity Research

Life expectancy increased dramatically over the twentieth century. If similar gains are to be made again, radical advances in our understanding of biology are necessary. This report describes the social and institutional barriers to progress in longevity research, which are relatively small, and the technical barriers, which constitute the real bottleneck.